The Hidden Crisis in America's Drinking Water
When harmful forever chemicals infiltrate drinking water supplies, the approximately 40 million Americans who depend on private wells often remain the last to discover the danger. Unlike municipal water systems subject to federal regulations, private well owners frequently lack routine testing, leaving them exposed to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) without warning.
A Wisconsin Town's Wake-Up Call
Kristen Hanneman's seemingly minor decision in 2022 triggered a community-wide reckoning in Stella, Wisconsin. After accepting a state offer to test her well, she received alarming news months later: PFAS levels measured thousands of times higher than federal drinking water limits. The toxicologist's urgent instruction was simple yet devastating: stop drinking the water immediately.
Hanneman's well proved far from unique. The contamination spread through Stella's sandy soil, eventually traced to a nearby paper mill that had produced greaseproof microwave popcorn bags using PFAS. For decades, with state approval, the mill had spread millions of pounds of waste sludge containing these chemicals on farm fields as fertilizer, allowing PFAS to seep into groundwater feeding residential wells.
The Science Behind the Threat
Forever chemicals earn their name through remarkable persistence, resisting breakdown in both environment and human body where they accumulate in liver, kidneys, and blood. Research links PFAS exposure to increased cancer risks and developmental delays in children. Government estimates suggest up to half of U.S. households have some PFAS level in their water, whether from private wells or municipal taps.
Despite growing understanding of these risks, federal drinking water limits apply only to utilities, not private wells. The current standard stands at just 4 parts per trillion—equivalent to less than a drop diluted in an Olympic-sized swimming pool.
The Testing Gap
According to an Associated Press survey, at least twenty states do not test private wells for PFAS outside areas where contamination is already suspected. Even in proactive states, residents often wait years for assistance and receive fewer resources than those connected to municipal systems.
"The well owners—the victims of the contamination—shouldn't have to be paying," said environmental attorney Robert Bilott, who pursued early PFAS lawsuits. "But where's this money going to come from?"
Community Impacts and Legal Battles
In Stella, the Hanneman family's discovery prompted expanded testing revealing widespread contamination. The family, who moved into their home when their oldest son was nearly two—he's now nineteen—worries about years of exposure and has joined lawsuits against paper mill owners and PFAS manufacturers.
Several plaintiffs allege property damage and link cholesterol, thyroid, and kidney diseases to contaminated groundwater. Companies have denied responsibility, creating circular finger-pointing while residents remain stuck with contaminated wells.
Remediation Challenges
Removing PFAS requires expensive filtration systems needing regular monitoring and replacement. Some well owners drill deeper or connect to city water, while many resort to bottled water. In Stella, limited grant funding for replacement wells considered household income, with some families disqualified for earning over $65,000.
Wisconsin's environmental agency has no dedicated budget for PFAS sampling or treatment, pulling resources from other programs. Supplying bottled water to impacted homes now requires $900,000 annually—once a rare expense.
Broader National Pattern
Similar stories emerge nationwide. In Peshtigo, Wisconsin, treatment depends on street location due to corporate liability boundaries. "Groundwater does not follow lines drawn on a map," said former town board member Kayla Furton.
Along North Carolina's Cape Fear River, testing initiated in 2017 continues seven years later, with contamination stretching nearly 100 miles. Chemours, the responsible company, has sampled approximately 23,000 wells, finding PFAS in more than 150 new wells in 2025 alone.
State Responses Vary Widely
Michigan offers free testing near PFAS hotspots and provided $29 million in cleanup grants during 2022. New Hampshire has tested over 15,000 wells, more than half exceeding federal standards, offering generous rebates for clean water access.
Conversely, northwest Georgia communities face widespread contamination from carpet manufacturers' historical PFAS use for stain resistance. Only well owners near Calhoun receive free testing under court agreement, while Alabama downstream typically doesn't test private wells for PFAS.
Systemic Barriers
Financial limitations frequently prevent comprehensive state action. Wisconsin lawmakers approved $125 million for PFAS cleanup in 2023, but funding remains stalled over liability shield debates. The Environmental Protection Agency allocates billions for PFAS treatment, but most targets public utilities.
Testing mandates face political resistance, as many well owners value independence from government oversight and take pride in their water's taste. Yet PFAS transforms these freedoms into liabilities, with contamination affecting property values and creating health uncertainties.
Ongoing Concerns in Stella
Three years after discovering her well's contamination, Hanneman's family still drinks bottled water provided by the state. The paper mill continues spreading sludge in Stella's county, though recent tests show PFAS levels within new state guidelines.
Experts warn that sludge from industry and manufacturers likely contains PFAS, and Wisconsin developed testing guidelines accordingly. However, the state doesn't require testing for septic system waste sludge, which a local company spread hundreds of thousands of gallons of in Stella during 2024 alone.
"Given what we know today, continuing to spread sludge on agricultural fields is ludicrous," said University of Maine researcher Dianne Kopec. "When you find yourself in a hole, it is best to stop digging."
As the crisis continues unfolding, private well owners nationwide remain vulnerable to contamination discovery delays, inadequate testing, and insufficient remediation support—a silent threat flowing through millions of American households.
