Racist abuse against England’s football stars during the World Cup doubled on match days and skyrocketed by 10 times after the team was knocked out by Argentina, according to research by HOPE not hate (HNH).
HNH found more than 5,500 explicitly racist posts directed at the England squad, after tracking around 320,000 posts on X, formerly Twitter, during the tournament.
Abuse patterns on match days
Researchers said baseline racial abuse accounted for 1-2% of posts throughout the tournament and more than doubled to 4-5% on match days. It rose by 10 times the normal level following England’s semi-final exit against Argentina.
The study found Jude Bellingham faced the highest overall volume of racist posts. Kobbie Mainoo and Bukayo Saka suffered the highest proportion of racist abuse relative to total mentions about them.
Targeting of specific players
Djed Spence was targeted with distinct waves of anti-Muslim hate following his conversion to Islam, HNH said. The 26-year-old Inter Milan player became the first Muslim to play for the senior England men's football team when he came on as a substitute during a World Cup qualifier in September.
Around one third of racist posts were sent directly to players or the England team account. Most of the abuse was posted elsewhere and referred to the team and players in the third person.
Role of high-profile figures and platforms
HNH said its research demonstrates how single posts by high-profile figures become “hate hubs where thousands of abusive comments gather”. For example, it highlighted a post by Restore leader Rupert Lowe that simply said “Jude Bellingham” after the hero player scored during stoppage time at the end of the first half against Norway in the quarter-finals.
HNH said the post, which received more than 13 million views, saw a barrage of racist responses, including one saying: “Deport after half-time.” Another reply said: “England 'celebrates' diversity. Remigration is the moderate approach.” Remigration is a far-right concept referring to the deportation or voluntary return of non-white people to their so-called origin or home country.
Experts have long accused X, which is owned by tech billionaire Elon Musk, of amplifying harmful and extremist content using its powerful algorithms.
Calls for regulatory action
Patrik Hermansson, senior researcher at HOPE not hate, said there is a well-known pattern of abuse surrounding major football tournaments. England players Jadon Sancho, Marcus Rashford and Bukayo Saka faced a barrage of racism after missing penalties during the Euro 2020 final shootout, where the Three Lions lost against Italy.
Jonathan Best, a football fan who livestreamed himself on Facebook racially abusing the players, was jailed in 2021. In 2022, Hugh Laidlaw was fined and given a suspended sentence after sending "hateful and racist" posts.
HNH is calling for algorithms that fuel abuse to be outlawed. It wants media regulator Ofcom to enforce safety-by-design requirements for platforms, rather than using the Online Safety Act (OSA) to address harm after it has already happened.
HNH is also calling on Ofcom to extend its crisis protocols to cover major sporting events. The protocols were developed amid recent instances of online hate having been blamed for violent riots on Britain's streets. Ofcom should also update its regulatory Codes under the OSA to designate major sporting tournaments as high-risk public events, the campaign group added.
Mr Hermansson said: “Our research shows that hate targeting footballers follows a clear and predictable pattern. It focuses on specific players and is, to a significant degree, driven by a small number of high-profile actors who benefit from the anger and attention they generate. What is especially troubling is that we have seen the same pattern at previous tournaments, yet very little has been done to address it. This is not new or unexpected, and platforms should no longer be able to treat it as such.”
Taylor Gese, from the Future of Tech Institute, said: “The tech platforms already have the tools to stop this abuse, and Ofcom already has the mandate to enforce it - yet neither is acting. Platforms refuse to deploy their own safety controls because outrage drives engagement, and hate sells. Meanwhile, our regulators are turning a blind eye and letting them off the hook. It is high time Ofcom used its powers under the OSA to outlaw the toxic algorithms that harm our athletes, our children, our democracy and more.”
An Ofcom spokesman said: “No-one should have to put up with this vile abuse, and we condemn racism in all its forms. Tech firms have a legal responsibility to assess and mitigate the risk of UK users encountering criminal content, and we’ve shown we’ll take action if evidence suggests companies are falling short. We have a live compliance programme open to assess whether the largest social media sites have adequate systems and processes for dealing with illegal hate speech that has been reported to them, and we’re working closely with police and footballing bodies as part of this.”
