Australian police forces are deploying a range of so-called 'less lethal' weapons against crowds, including launchers that fire 'bullet-like missiles', chemical irritants, and stinger grenades. Experts warn these tools can cause serious injury or even death, yet they are used with minimal oversight.
The Hidden Arsenal
Weapons such as teargas, flashbang grenades, and launchers resembling semi-automatic rifles are often described as 'less lethal'. However, Rohini Haar, a medical adviser at Physicians for Human Rights, states that 'all of these weapons can kill people'. She notes that there is 'almost zero' global regulation of the industry producing these weapons. In Australia, no national standards govern their use, and police in some states actively conceal what weapons they possess.
In Victoria, police have refused to disclose the make and model of rubber bullets to parliamentarians, citing 'operational and community safety considerations'. Contracts worth millions are often routed through third-party distributors, obscuring the supply chain. During coronial inquests, Victoria police have sought suppression orders to prevent media from detailing weaponry. Similarly, details about Tasers have been suppressed in some states.
Guardian Australia approached every police force in the country for a list of manufacturers and models of their less lethal weapons, but all declined, citing operational safety. By analyzing protest footage, consulting weapons experts, and examining tender documents, court records, and police data, a comprehensive picture has emerged of these tools.
Projectiles: Foam Baton and Bean Bag Rounds
Police in Australia have access to 40mm launchers that fire 'bullet-like missiles', including foam baton or bean bag rounds, intended to 'deter conduct through the pain of impact'. Footage from Victoria protests shows officers using what experts identify as Combined Systems Inc. (CSI) launchers. CSI also supplies the US army, FBI, and New South Wales police. The company acknowledges that misuse 'may cause damage to property, serious bodily injury or death'.
Despite sounding benign, these rounds are 'functionally rubber bullets' due to their weight and speed, delivering a 'blunt trauma effect'. In 2021, Victoria police began using foam baton rounds on protesters, leading to injuries and civil cases. One case settled in April 2024 involved Chris Dahl, who alleged he was shot with a foam baton round, leaving a gaping wound requiring stitches. The settlement terms remain confidential.
Such projectiles have been linked to deaths and injuries worldwide. Scott Reynhout, a weapons researcher at Physicians for Human Rights, says 'they can be very nasty things'. A Victoria police spokesperson stated the force has 'stringent processes in place' for crowd control equipment. NSW police have access to CSI Penn Arms 40mm launchers and Heckler & Koch HK69 launchers, while Queensland police also possess 40mm single-shot launchers.
In 2023, at least three people died in NSW and Victoria within four months after being shot with less lethal projectiles or stun guns at their homes. Inquest findings are pending. Following the 2020 George Floyd protests, a review of injuries in Minneapolis found that among 89 cases, much damage was to the head, neck, or face, with 16 patients suffering traumatic brain injuries. Haar concludes that projectiles have no role in crowd control due to dangers at close range and difficulty aiming from afar.
Chemical Irritants: OC Spray
At a February protest outside Sydney Town Hall, NSW police were seen clutching red canisters containing oleoresin capsicum (OC spray), a highly concentrated chilli pepper compound that causes burning sensations. Some compare it to 'being stabbed in the eye'. Journalists hit with OC spray have reported temporary blindness. The OC spray used in NSW is made by Defense Technology, linked to US manufacturer Safariland. Footage from Alice Springs shows Northern Territory police using the same brand. In Melbourne, Victoria police use Sabre products, including the large MK9 canister.
Chemical irritants, including teargas, are broadly categorized as 'non-lethal', but research is limited. A global review found they can 'cause severe injury, permanent disabilities, and in rare cases, death'. Teargas has emerging evidence of adverse reproductive health outcomes. Victorian data shows OC was discharged 9,188 times between mid-2018 and 2023. From November 2025, Victoria police signed a $1.5 million contract for OC products with Australian Defence Apparel, also a supplier for Queensland police.
Product sheets recommend a minimum distance of six feet (under two metres) for MK9 use, but footage shows police using it at closer range. Haar notes that sprays are 'an indiscriminate weapon'. Sometimes sprayed directly in the face, footage shows police using arcing motions across crowds. Sabre's safety data warns of 'more severe, temporary effects' on asthmatics or those with emphysema.
During a class-action lawsuit against Victoria police over OC spray use at a 2019 environmental protest, officers described the MK9 as 'an effective crowd dispersal tool'. Victorian police manuals state OC spray is not meant for those 'only passively resisting'. A judge found protester Jordan Brown had been subject to unlawful battery and awarded him $54,000 in damages. 'It just felt like razor blades in my eyes,' he testified.
Peter O'Brien, a solicitor, says he has growing concerns about OC being used 'as a tool for enforcing compliance'. After a 2020 Black Lives Matter protest, he settled about a dozen cases against NSW police for OC spray use. A report from the Australian Democracy Network tracks increasing OC use at protests. Criminologist Emma Ryan notes that OC spray was introduced as an alternative to lethal force but is now 'slipping down the use of force continuum' to crowd dispersal.
PepperBall Launchers
Footage from Victoria protests shows police using VKS PepperBall semi-automatic launchers, made by US company United Tactical Systems. These weapons use high-pressure air to deliver projectiles that burst on impact, creating 'a cloud of pepper irritant' containing Pava powder. They can also fire 'marking rounds' with paint to identify individuals for arrest. US police manuals note that PepperBall rounds can cause coughing, shortness of breath, and involuntary eye closure, as well as abrasions and bruises.
The manufacturer acknowledges 'temporary blindness, burning sensation, and difficulty breathing' and states misuse can cause 'serious injury or death'. In the US, United Tactical Systems has received over $2 million in contracts, including from the Department of Homeland Security. A PepperBall spokesperson said the product is 'classified as a non-lethal solution' and that there have been 'no reported fatalities caused by PepperBall products' over 20 years.
Compressed air weapons have caused serious injuries and deaths. In 2004, a US college student was killed by a pellet from another air launcher during Red Sox celebrations. An investigation found the officer 'failed to take sufficiently into account that he was shooting at a moving target in the midst of a crowd'. In Denver, the city settled with a couple who alleged burns and pregnancy complications from pepperballs during 2020 protests.
The Victorian premier confirmed police were given 'pepperball' guns in 2018 'to help officers engage with violent people at a greater distance'. Logan, a spokesperson from Melbourne Activist Legal Support, says the weapons leave the air thick with chemicals, and subsequent devices can agitate the powder back into the air.
Distraction Devices: Stinger Grenades and Flashbangs
Since 2018, Victoria police have spent at least $1.2 million on 'distraction devices', including stinger grenades and flashbangs, designed to emit extreme sound, light, and pressure. Scout, a protester who requested anonymity, had never heard of stinger grenades before one exploded near them at a Melbourne protest in October 2023. Seven months later, Scout expects lifelong scars on their legs and experiences phantom pain. 'Loud noises would make me cry,' they said.
Stingers, known as crowd control munitions, can project small rubber pellets. Scout's injuries were likely caused by metal fragments. They are one of at least three people considering legal action. Police confirmed using two stinger grenades and four flashbangs at that protest. These devices are made by various manufacturers, but Melbourne Activist Legal Support believes some were designed by Combined Systems.
Haar says flashbangs can cause blast injuries and burns, noting they 'were made by the military for military use' and lack data for safe use against unarmed civilians. Reynhout explains that when thrown, the fuse and grenade body separate, making them imprecise. Helen Close of the Omega Research Foundation says they shouldn't be used in protest policing due to inaccuracy and potential for severe eye injuries.
Reviewing footage, Reynhout notes how stinger grenades change direction. In one instance, a grenade lobbed into empty space shifted and detonated into protesters' legs. In an October rally, an officer threw a device over a barrier, detonating near a group. Retired police captain Spencer Fomby says officers are trained to roll such devices, as overhand throws risk airbursts closer to faces.
Scout complained to Victoria police, but an internal investigation found the deployment 'appropriate and in accordance with law, policy and accepted Victoria Police practice'. Michelle Reynolds of the Police Accountability Project questions whether such devices are effective, as they 'create chaos' and an unsafe environment.
Tasers
Tasers, designed by US company Axon, are used by police across Australia. In Victoria, the government announced a $214 million rollout in 2023. They have come under scrutiny after deaths, including that of 95-year-old Clare Nowland in 2023. NSW senior constable Kristian White fired his Taser at Nowland, who fell and hit her head; he was found guilty of manslaughter in 2024.
Data obtained by Guardian Australia shows Taser use in NSW more than doubled in five years, from 569 deployments in 2020-21 to 1,403 in 2024-25. Criminologist Emma Ryan says Tasers were presented as an alternative to firearms, but there is little transparency about their actual use. She questions whether they are replacing batons or capsicum spray rather than firearms. The same data shows service firearm discharges remained steady: seven times in 2020-21 and eight in 2024-25.
Ryan notes little accountability regarding which groups are most affected. In NSW, Tasers were drawn or deployed against Indigenous people in 57% of interactions in 2024-25. A NSW police spokesperson said Taser use is 'subject to strict oversight'. Inquests have revealed unreliability and breaches of policy. In Western Australia, a coroner recommended officers understand the risks of using Tasers on the chest and heart.
How Police Obscure Use of Force
Legal claims against police for excessive force at protests are rising, but data is not publicly collected, and settlements often remain confidential due to non-disclosure agreements. In 2024-25, NSW police received 478 civil claims and paid out $40.26 million. A spokesperson said the force is 'committed to maintaining public confidence through strong oversight'.
Oversight bodies have criticized underreporting and inconsistencies in use-of-force recording. At protests, force can involve takedowns or horses. In Victoria, horse presence at demonstrations rose from 28 in 2019 to 74 in 2024. Police data collection also obscures weapon adoption. NSW police could not break down OC spray use at protests, and Victoria police did not separately track launcher use until more than a year after deployment.
A Victoria police spokesperson said protecting operational details is 'to ensure the safety of police'. Jeremy King, a lawyer, has resolved hundreds of cases involving less lethal weapons, estimating that at least half of his weekly police-related inquiries involve OC spray or Tasers. The police spokesperson said only a small number of civil matters have been filed regarding non-lethal options.
Civil cases take years to resolve, often with confidential settlements. 'Police deliberately hide the detail of these weapons behind closed doors,' King says. Logan from Melbourne Activist Legal Support notes a normalization of OC spray, explosives, and projectiles at protests, and calls for a ban on these weapons for crowd control. 'This is the new normal,' he says.
